The history of the term pudendum: Opening the discussion on anatomical sex inequality.

The anatomical terminology for the female external genitalia, "pudendum," was removed from the second edition of the Terminologia Anatomica (2019) in response to opposition of the Latin root of the word (pudere meaning "to be ashamed"). This recent revision provides an opportunity to discuss sex inequality within the history of anatomy. This viewpoint article compares the evolution of modern anatomical terminology toward clarity and precision to the stagnant non-descriptive naming of the "pudendum" to illuminate a long timeline of the societal misperception of women. Claudius Galen (129-216 BC) used the Greek αιδοίον/aidoion (from αἰδώς/aidos meaning shame, respect, or modesty) to describe both the male and female external genitalia, as he believed that men and women were isomorphic, the difference lying only in the positioning of the reproductive organs. Galen, however, was not always impartial in his comparisons, repeatedly describing the female as inferior to the male. Andreas Vesalius (1543), whose illustrations greatly influenced the study of anatomy, later drew the female genitalia as Galen described them, as internal equivalents of male genitalia, codifying female shame within anatomical terminology. While renaming "pudendum" is a noble step in support of women, changing one word will not undo generations of implicit bias and institutional oppression. We can, however, work to create culturally and psychosocially competent future physicians through the integrative study of sex and gender issues and anatomy. Through an understanding of historical context, physicians can refocus their actions on providing care in a way that leaves the patient feeling proud, not ashamed.

He said/She said; Shaming, Blaming Reframing: Impacts and Implications of Childlessness on Relationships in an Ancient Text.

Describing the terms of "shaming, blaming, naming, claiming, and reframing" as the possible changing dynamics in some human relationships to achieve a resolution, is a fairly recent insight. Through analyzing a short section of an ancient text, Biblical Antiquities, we show how those matters, although not named as dynamics, were recognized as stages in human interactions millennia ago. They were played out in the announcement and subsequent birth of the biblical judge Samson.

The Western Trauma Association at 50: Still about trauma care, friendship, family, and snow.

This article is a synopsis of a book created for the 50th anniversary meeting of the Western Trauma Association in February 2020. On the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Western Trauma Association, a review of the organization's history, its contribution to trauma care and the development of leaders in the field, and its enduring unique culture reveals a vibrant association grounded in the values of its founders and well-positioned to continue successfully into the next 50 years.

The American and Canadian wartime godmothers of Belgian soldiers. Joseph de Dorlodot's Correspondence and Documentation Office (1915-1919).

Lieutenant Joseph de Dorlodot (1871-1941), a Belgian aristocrat and philanthropist, was the Director of the Belgian Correspondence and Documentation Office in Folkestone, England. This article uses the 'Joseph de Dorlodot' archive collection (Archives Générales du Royaume de Belgique, Bruxelles) to investigate the emotional support provided by the Correspondence Office during the First World War. Throughout the conflict, its mission was to facilitate the sending of mail between Belgians, to provide them with legal advice and to offer humanitarian assistance to those who were in material and emotional distress. This was particularly the case of soldiers at the front. In the spring of 1916, the Office set up a mail system between Belgian soldiers and wartime godmothers - 'marraines' - from Canada and the USA. Lieutenant de Dorlodot imposed a precise moral and political framework for correspondence, where an intimate space was created in order to strengthen patriotic sentiment on the one hand, and control masculinities and femininities on the other. Through their letter exchanges with soldiers, godmothers participated in the war effort by bringing emotional reinforcement to the front line, from their homes, through a type of caring work often ignored or at least disconnected from any notion of work in the history of the Great War.

State of the art: understanding and integration of the social context in diabetes care.

We review the past 25 years of research addressing challenges people living with diabetes experience in their daily lives related to social contexts, i.e. in their family, at work and in society at large, and identify research gaps. We found that young people with diabetes, as they develop through to adulthood, are exposed to considerable risks to their physical and mental health. Family-system interventions have had mixed outcomes. Research in this area would benefit from attention to ethnic/cultural diversity, and involving fathers and other family members. In adults with diabetes, social support relates to better diabetes outcomes. While family member involvement in care is likely to affect health and psychosocial outcomes of the person with diabetes, key elements and mediators of effective family interventions need to be identified. The challenges of diabetes management at work are under-researched; distress and intentional hyperglycaemia are common. When depression is comorbid with diabetes, there are increased work-related risks, e.g. unemployment, sickness absence and reduced income. Research to support people with diabetes at work should involve colleagues and employers to raise awareness and create supportive environments. Stigma and discrimination have been found to be more common than previously acknowledged, affecting self-care, well-being and access to health services. Guidance on stigma-reducing choice of language has been published recently. Resilience, defined as successful adaptation to adversity such as stigma and discrimination, requires studies relevant to the specific challenges of diabetes, whether at diagnosis or subsequently. The importance of the social context for living well with diabetes is now fully recognized, but understanding of many of the challenges, whether at home or work, is still limited, with much work needed to develop successful interventions.

Estudos sobre a imagem das enfermeiras: cinco décadas entre a imagética e suas repercussões / Estudios sobre la imagen de las enfermeras: cinco décadas entre la imagen y sus repercusiones / Studies on the image of nurses: five decades between imagery and its repercussions

RESUMO Objetivo Analisar a imagem da enfermeira na imprensa escrita nas décadas de 1930 a 1950 e suas repercussões nas décadas de 1970 a 1980. Método Estudo histórico-documental com abordagem qualitativa, que utilizou como fontes de dados às reportagens publicadas no Jornal baiano A Tarde nas décadas de 1930 a 1980, marcadas por importantes acontecimentos históricos nos cenários nacional e internacional, discussões sobre transformação da imagem e reconstrução da identidade profissional da enfermeira. Resultados Foram identificadas três representações centrais da enfermeira na impressa jornalística: a imagética religiosa e militar da profissão e as repercussões das imagens das enfermeiras como produto/produtoras de outras imagéticas que se escreveram no tempo histórico e que serão produtos de continuidades, rupturas e descontinuidades. Conclusões e implicações para a prática As imagens da enfermeira e suas repercussões são cocriações determinadas no campo social político e econômico que atravessa os tempos e a história estando relacionada aos interesses governamentais e de mercado.

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar la imagen de la enfermera en la prensa escrita en los años 1930-1950 y sus repercusiones en los años 1970-1980. Método Estudio histórico-documental con enfoque cualitativo, que utilizó como fuentes de datos los informes publicados en el periódico bahiano A Tarde en las décadas de 1930 a 1980, marcadas por importantes acontecimientos históricos en el escenario nacional e internacional y discusiones sobre la transformación de la imagen y la reconstrucción de la identidad profesional de la enfermera. Resultados Se identificaron tres representaciones centrales de la enfermera en la prensa periodística: las imágenes religiosas y militares de la profesión y las repercusiones de las imágenes de las enfermeras como producto/productora de otras imágenes que se escribieron en el tiempo histórico y serán producto de continuidades, rupturas y discontinuidades. Conclusiones e implicaciones para la práctica Las imágenes de las enfermeras y sus repercusiones son co-creaciones conjuntas determinadas en los campos sociales político y económico que cruzan los tiempos y la historia en relación con los intereses del gobierno y del mercado.

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze the image of the nurse in written press in the 1930's-1950's and its repercussions in the 1970's-1980's. Method Historical-documentary study with a qualitative approach, which used as data sources the reports published in a newspaper from Bahia called A Tarde in the 1930's to the 1980's, marked by important historical events in the national and international scenario and discussions about image transformation and reconstruction of the nurse's professional identity. Results Three central representations of the nurse were identified in the journalistic press: the religious and military imagery of the profession and the repercussions of the nurses' images as a product/producer of other imagery that was written in historical time and will be products of continuities, ruptures and discontinuities. Conclusions and implications for practice The images of nurses and their repercussions are co-creations determined in the political and economic social field that crosses the times and history being related to government and market interests.

Gauging effects of historical differences on aging trajectories: The increasing importance of friendships.

For a long time, life span psychologists have theorized that individual development is partially shaped by an everchanging historical context. For example, it has been hypothesized that the historically increasing flexibility of constructing social networks may influence the social development of adults into late life. To date, however, there is no established method in psychological science that allows researchers to easily gauge the effects of historical differences in time-varying covariates on aging trajectories, which are also subject to historical change. Here, the method of cohort centering is introduced as a potential remedy for this dilemma. Using a large-scale, cohort-sequential data set, representative of the German population aged 40 to 85 years (N = 19,017), I applied cohort centering to examine historical differences in the aging trajectories of number of friends in the close personal networks and time spent in activities with friends. The results indicated that older cohorts may be more engaged with friends than younger cohorts. Results also showed that historical differences in friendship relations in later life could partially be explained by historical gains in self-rated health, education, and individual perceptions of aging. In sum, cohort centering can tell us how future aging trajectories will look given a specific set of preconditions and can provide information about what could happen if these conditions change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Trends in the Proportion of Female Speakers at Medical Conferences in the United States and in Canada, 2007 to 2017.

Importance: Gender equity is a prominent issue in the medical profession. Representation of female physicians at academic meetings has been identified as an important component of gender equity; however, this topic has not been systematically assessed. Objective: To determine the trend during the last decade in the proportion of speakers who were women at major academic medical conferences held in Canada and in the United States. Design, Setting, and Participants: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted examining the gender of speakers listed in meeting programs of medical conferences held in Canada and in the United States in 2007 and from 2013 through 2017. Eligible conferences were identified using a sensitive search strategy, and a previously validated tool was used to analyze each meeting speaker list and to assign a proportion of female speakers. Conferences held in English language, hosted in Canada or the United States, and targeted to a physician audience with 100 or more attendees were included. The comparison group was active physicians in Canada and in the United States. Main Outcomes and Measures: The mean of the proportion of female speakers at each conference per year. Results: In total, 181 conferences with 701 individual meetings were analyzed, including 100 medical and 81 surgical specialty conferences. The proportion of women ranged from 0% to 82.6% of all speakers. The mean (SD) proportion of female conference speakers for all meetings analyzed significantly increased from 24.6% (14.6%) for 40 meetings in 2007 to 34.1% (15.1%) for 181 meetings in 2017 (P < .001). The mean proportion of female speakers at medical specialty conferences was 9.8% higher (SE, 1.9%; P < .001) than the mean proportion of female speakers at surgical specialty conferences for all years analyzed. The mean proportion of female speakers at conferences was similar to the mean proportion of active female physicians across all specialties in the United States and in Canada for all years analyzed. Conclusions and Relevance: Although our findings indicate that the proportion of female speakers at medical conferences increased during the last decade, women continue to be underrepresented. Speaker invitation and selection at conferences represent important opportunities to influence gender equity within medicine.

Effects of self- and partner's online disclosure on relationship intimacy and satisfaction.

Most research on the effects of disclosure on close relationships have been done using offline disclosure. However, disclosure done online has disparate features and thus its effects on relationships may also differ. In five studies and using primes emulating Facebook timelines and messages, we compared the effects of disclosure depth on intimacy and satisfaction in online vs. offline contexts, in romantic vs. friend relationships, and with differing content (self- vs. partner-focused). After demonstrating consistent differences, we examined one mechanism that accounted for the differential effects of online vs. offline disclosure in romantic relationships: perceived inclusivity of the recipients. Results revealed that greater disclosure was associated with higher relational intimacy and satisfaction when done offline (Studies 1 and 4), and lower intimacy and satisfaction when done online (Studies 1-4), in both the discloser (Study 1) and his or her partner (Studies 2-4). The negative association between online disclosure and intimacy was present in romantic relationships, but not in friendships (Study 1). Importantly, this effect only appeared when perceived inclusivity of recipients was high (Study 4). Focusing the online disclosure content on the partner/relationship dissipated its negative effects (Study 5). Together, these studies extend further knowledge on how the effects of disclosure are contextualized, and suggest that disclosure done publicly online may be detrimental to romantic relationships.

Early history of transylvania medical college: The saga of a disputed autopsy precipitating a duel and grave robbing.

At the beginning of the 19th century, there were only five medical schools in America. The Medical Department of Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, was the first in the West; however, it had few students or faculty until it was restructured in 1815. In 1817-1818, three of its faculty members (Benjamin Dudley, Daniel Drake, and William Richardson) quickly developed a highly dysfunctional relationship. Dudley tried to have Richardson fired, with Drake blocking this. Drake then criticized Dudley's performance of a coroner's autopsy, resulting in both parties publishing derogatory comments about each other. Dudley then challenged Drake to a pistol duel but Drake, not believing in dueling, declined. Richardson, wanting to defend his friend's honor, accepted the challenge and was mortally wounded in August 1818. Dudley, a prominent surgeon, saved his life. Both Dudley and Richardson were important Kentuckian Freemasons and the brotherhood felt compelled to punish them for un-Masonic behavior. Drake left and started his own medical school in Cincinnati in 1819, in direct completion with and destabilizing Transylvania's school. This saga is dissected in the context of the bizarre history of dueling as part of the Code of Honor by which gentlemen in the Old South often resolved their differences. The essay analyzes the autopsy dispute and reviews politics within the medical school, the University, and newer competing medical schools. Transylvania's medical school was recognized as one of the best in the US during the first half of the 1800s, but by 1859, it had permanently closed its doors. Clin. Anat. 32:489-500, 2019. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Group size in social-ecological systems.

Cooperation becomes more difficult as a group becomes larger, but it is unclear where it will break down. Here, we study group size within well-functioning social-ecological systems. We consider centuries-old evidence from hundreds of communities in the Alps that harvested common property resources. Results show that the average group size remained remarkably stable over about six centuries, in contrast to a general increase in the regional population. The population more than doubled, but although single groups experienced fluctuations over time, the average group size remained stable. Ecological factors, such as managing forest instead of pasture land, played a minor role in determining group size. The evidence instead indicates that factors related to social interactions had a significant role in determining group size. We discuss possible interpretations of the findings based on constraints in individual cognition and obstacles in collective decision making.

[Oxytocin: From a Hormone for Birth to a Social Hormone : The Hormonal Governance of Sociability aka Society]. / Oxytocin: Vom Geburts- zum Sozialhormon : Zur hormonellen Regierbarkeit von Soziabilität aka Gesellschaft.

In the mass media, the hormone Oxytocin is currently being debated as the biochemical basis of sociability and a powerful neuropharmacological solution for (re-)establishing societal cohesion. Given its beginning as a 'bodyhormone' early in the 20th century, this article will trace the extraordinary career of Oxytocin from a regulator of birth to a regulator of society. What makes so strong a claim intelligible and acceptable? Our analysis of the scientific discourse on Oxytocin (1906-1990), the mass media discourse since the 1990s, and its repercussions for the scientific discourse during the same period, suggest a series of re-configurations of scientific theories and practices, as well as of the conception of the substance itself. Oxytocin became established in the first half of the 20th century, and as a neurohormone as early as the 1950s, yet during the following decades attracted little scientific attention. Only following the mass media's focus on the suggested effects of Oxytocin on love and bonding did the substance increasingly become the focus of empirical research. This work argues that the reception of Oxytocin as a potential neurohormonal basis for individual sociability strongly relies on the mass media discourses, biopolitical linkages that had already been made in the first half of the 20th century aiming at the regulation of life, and a technoscientific mode of research on Oxytocin. At their intersection Oxytocin emerged as a social hormone.

Interpersonal violence among the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages inhabitants living on the Central Plateau of Iran: A voice from Tepe Hissar.

ABSTRACT: The site of Tepe Hissar (Iran) experienced widespread cultural and economic changes during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages (5th to the 2nd millennium B.C.). The discovery of evidence of burning, including charred human remains, the destruction of buildings (Periods II and III), and the presence of several mass-burials with comingling of human skeletal remains consisting of ten or more individuals (Period III), suggests interpersonal violence during these periods. The original excavator of Tepe Hissar, Erich Schmidt, suggested that phenomena such as war, massacres, epidemics, or similar catastrophes, may have been responsible for the excavated archaeological evidence. This study tests the hypothesis that interpersonal violence was responsible for this evidence. Patterns of violence related head injury are explored among 129 adult men and women from the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages. Sixty of the 129 (46.5%) crania examined presented with cranial trauma, with 25 (19.3%) having evidence of perimortem injury, and four (3.1%) and 31 (24%) individuals with signs of healing and healed head/facial trauma, respectively. Most of the injuries were located on the frontal or parietal bones of the cranium. Such findings may be interpreted as a result of the population experiencing a rise in social complexity and population increase that accompanied violence related to intra- or inter-group competition, often leading to lethal outcomes. These data support the hypothesis that the cultural and economic transitions and population changes that occurred at Tepe Hissar, and particularly in the Hissar II and III periods, were accompanied by tension and interpersonal violence.

The Influence of Collaboration: Ralph Waters' Friendship With John Lundy and the Spread of Regional Anesthesia.

Ralph Waters, the founder of the anesthesiology department and residency program at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and John Lundy, the chair at the Mayo Clinic beginning in 1924, collaborated to expand regional anesthetic techniques and knowledge not only at their institutions, but also at institutions around the country through correspondence, meetings, and hosting of other anesthesiologists. The Ralph Waters Collection at the University of Wisconsin Archives was searched for information on Waters' and Lundy's involvement in regional anesthesia. This included publications by Waters and other anesthesiology department faculty, as well as personal correspondence with other leaders in anesthesia at that time. Correspondence between Waters and Lundy from this collection was reviewed in detail. This article underscores the importance of exchange of ideas by physicians through didactics, organizations, and research through the story of Ralph Waters and John Lundy's mutual exchange of ideas and even friendship beginning in the 1920s.